Míngguǐ 明鬼

‘Clarifying Ghosts’: a triad of chapters of the Mòzǐ, of which only the final part survives. The chapters are notable for their explicit concern with evidence and testimony. They argue that reports of ghosts and spirits should be assessed through what people have jointly seen and heard, while also appealing to historical records and practical consequences. Whether or not one accepts their conclusions, the chapters are important for their reflections on testimony, existence claims, and the role of belief in supporting moral and political order.